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Centenarian blood tests give hints of the secrets to longevity

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/karin-modig-1473484">Karin Modig</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/karolinska-institutet-1250">Karolinska Institutet</a> Centenarians, once considered rare, have become commonplace. Indeed, they are the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/02/living-to-one-hundred-life-expectancy/">fastest-growing demographic group</a> of the world’s population, with numbers roughly doubling every ten years since the 1970s. How long humans can live, and what determines a long and healthy life, have been of interest for as long as we know. Plato and Aristotle discussed and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12092789/">wrote about the ageing process</a> over 2,300 years ago. The pursuit of understanding the secrets behind exceptional longevity isn’t easy, however. It involves <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7105197/">unravelling the complex interplay</a> of genetic predisposition and lifestyle factors and how they interact throughout a person’s life. Now our recent study, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-023-00936-w">published in GeroScience</a>, has unveiled some common biomarkers, including levels of cholesterol and glucose, in people who live past 90. Nonagenarians and centenarians have long been of intense interest to scientists as they may help us understand how to live longer, and perhaps also how to age in better health. So far, studies of centenarians have often been small scale and focused on a selected group, for example, excluding centenarians who live in care homes. <h2>Huge dataset</h2> Ours is the largest study comparing biomarker profiles measured throughout life among exceptionally long-lived people and their shorter-lived peers to date. We compared the biomarker profiles of people who went on to live past the age of 100, and their shorter-lived peers, and investigated the link between the profiles and the chance of becoming a centenarian. Our research included data from 44,000 Swedes who underwent health assessments at ages 64-99 - they were a sample of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28158674/">the so-called Amoris cohort</a>. These participants were then followed through Swedish register data for up to 35 years. Of these people, 1,224, or 2.7%, lived to be 100 years old. The vast majority (85%) of the centenarians were female. Twelve blood-based biomarkers related to inflammation, metabolism, liver and kidney function, as well as potential malnutrition and anaemia, were included. All of these <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0719-5">have been associated</a> with ageing or mortality in previous studies. The biomarker related to inflammation was uric acid – a waste product in the body caused by the digestion of certain foods. We also looked at markers linked to metabolic status and function including total cholesterol and glucose, and ones related to liver function, such as alanine aminotransferase (Alat), aspartate aminotransferase (Asat), albumin, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (Alp) and lactate dehydrogenase (LD). We also looked at creatinine, which is linked to kidney function, and iron and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), which is linked to anaemia. Finally, we also investigated albumin, a biomarker associated with nutrition. <h2>Findings</h2> We found that, on the whole, those who made it to their hundredth birthday tended to have lower levels of glucose, creatinine and uric acid from their sixties onwards. Although the median values didn’t differ significantly between centenarians and non-centenarians for most biomarkers, centenarians seldom displayed extremely high or low values. For example, very few of the centenarians had a glucose level above 6.5 earlier in life, or a creatinine level above 125. For many of the biomarkers, both centenarians and non-centenarians had values outside of the range considered normal in clinical guidelines. This is probably because these guidelines are set based on a younger and healthier population. When exploring which biomarkers were linked to the likelihood of reaching 100, we found that all but two (alat and albumin) of the 12 biomarkers showed a connection to the likelihood of turning 100. This was even after accounting for age, sex and disease burden. The people in the lowest out of five groups for levels of total cholesterol and iron had a lower chance of reaching 100 years as compared to those with higher levels. Meanwhile, people with higher levels of glucose, creatinine, uric acid and markers for liver function also decreased the chance of becoming a centenarian. In absolute terms, the differences were rather small for some of the biomarkers, while for others the differences were somewhat more substantial. For uric acid, for instance, the absolute difference was 2.5 percentage points. This means that people in the group with the lowest uric acid had a 4% chance of turning 100 while in the group with the highest uric acid levels only 1.5% made it to age 100. Even if the differences we discovered were overall rather small, they suggest a potential link between metabolic health, nutrition and exceptional longevity. The study, however, does not allow any conclusions about which lifestyle factors or genes are responsible for the biomarker values. However, it is reasonable to think that factors such as nutrition and alcohol intake play a role. Keeping track of your kidney and liver values, as well as glucose and uric acid as you get older, is probably not a bad idea. That said, chance probably plays a role at some point in reaching an exceptional age. But the fact that differences in biomarkers could be observed a long time before death suggests that genes and lifestyle may also play a role.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215166/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/karin-modig-1473484">Karin Modig</a>, Associate Professor, Epidemiology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/karolinska-institutet-1250">Karolinska Institutet</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/centenarian-blood-tests-give-hints-of-the-secrets-to-longevity-215166">original article</a>.

Retirement Life

"I want answers": Simon Dorante-Day's cunning plan to prove royal connections

The Queensland man claiming to be the son of King Charles and Queen Camilla has shared his new plan to prove once and for all that he has royal family connections. Simon Dorante-Day has long claimed through his 30 years of research, he discovered that he is the illegitimate son of the monarch, and has attempted to prove his theory through various means. Now, his new plan to get his hands on royal DNA to unequivocally prove his family heritage involves another member of the royal family. Speaking with <a href="https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/aussie-man-claiming-to-be-charles-son-drops-new-prince-harry-dna-bombshell-c-13488374" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7News</a>, the 57-year-old said he and his wife have been told by a “trusted source” that Prince Harry could be amenable to helping them gather proof. “We got advice from a really good, really trusted source that we should approach Harry and make a connection there and ask for DNA,” Elvianna said. Simon added, “I was really taken aback when he said that. But it’s definitely something I’m going to do. I’ve long been a supporter of Harry and Meghan, I think it’s disgraceful the way they’ve been treated by the royal family." “The way they are treated on social media too, it’s just one big ‘Punch-Meghan-and-Harry-a-thon’, seriously. It’s really starting to annoy me." He said he is planning to "make contact with him and explore this as an opportunity," pointing out that the royal family's treatment of Harry could make him more willing to help. "At the end of the day, I feel like he just might be as keen as I am to expose what Charles and Camilla and the powers that be have done to me. The injustice." “It’s worth me pointing out that Charles and Camilla, Buckingham Palace, the entire royal family - not one of them has ever said my claims are not true. They’ve never denied what I believe, told me I’m wrong." Simon said “the wheels are in motion” in terms of making contact with Prince Harry, and that he’s hopeful of a positive outcome. “I want answers,” he said. “And I feel Prince Harry is the man to help me find them.” “And I think their silence speaks volumes.” Simon said “the wheels are in motion” in terms of making contact with Prince Harry, and that he’s hopeful of a positive outcome. “I want answers,” he said. “And I feel Prince Harry is the man to help me find them.” Image credits: Facebook / Getty Images

Family & Pets

He's back! Charles and Camilla's secret "son" drops DNA bombshell

The Australian man who has long claimed to be the secret child of King Charles and Queen Camilla has shared the details of a wild plot to extract his DNA. The 57-year-old man from Queensland revealed he was tracked down by an American woman, who claimed she was the illegitimate child of the late Prince Philip, and attempted to get a DNA sample from the man. Simon Dorante-Day has made headline around the world with his claims that he is the son of Charles and Camilla, which he says are the results of decades worth of research. “My grandmother, who had worked for the Queen, told me outright that I was Camilla and Charles’ son many times,” he said. Now, in an interview with <a href="https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/aussie-man-who-claims-to-be-charles-and-camillas-son-drops-biggest-ever-dna-bombshell-c-12788618" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7News</a>, Dorante-Day shared the story of how he was tracked down by the American woman, who knocked on his door in the early hours of the morning on December 2nd. The 57-year-old and his wife Elvianna were immediately skeptical of the woman, who said she used a private investigator to track him down. “This woman claimed that she was the secret illegitimate daughter of Prince Philip who lived in San Francisco,” Dorante-Day said. “She explained that she had travelled from the US after hiring an investigator to track me down in Queensland. The whole purpose of her visit was to ask me for a sample of my DNA." “She wanted to compare it to hers, to basically prove that we were both related to the royal family.” After humouring the woman and letting her share her evidence along with her elaborate story, Simon concluded that the whole thing was a scam, along with an illegal attempt to extract his DNA. “This woman had a lot of so-called proof to back up her claims, but the whole thing just seemed really fishy,” he said. He recalled how the woman shared her own adoption story, which resulted in her turning to the FBI for help, who allegedly handed her her original birth certificate, which listed Prince Philip as her father. “Of course my bulls*** meter is flying off the handle at this point. I know how hard it is to get any government authority to address these sorts of issues — I hardly think the Federal Bereau of Investigation would just offer up the fact that she was the daughter of the Queen’s late husband," Simon said. “It was all just wild.” The Queensland father and grandfather said it wasn’t long until the woman gave away her real reason for wanting his DNA: money. “She said that she’s already been given a large payout from the royal family after she proved she was the daughter of Prince Philip,” he said. “And she felt that if she was able to compare my DNA to her DNA, and prove we were both descendants of the royal family, then we could ask them for even more money." “Elvianna and I told her what we’ve said to everyone from day one — this isn’t about money for us, at all. This is about us finding out who my birth parents are and protecting my family. We have never wanted money.” After saying goodbye to the pair, Dorante-Day said he and his wife were left reeling. <div> “At the end of the day, this was an illegal attempt to procure my DNA,” he said. Despite the whole experience leaving Dorante-Day and his wife rattled, he said his stance on proving that he is Charles and Camilla's son has not changed. “It takes a lot of work, money and time to build a case like this, but I am confident I will get there,” he said. “I know Charles and Camilla are my parents and I’m ready to prove it.” Image credits: Supplied </div>

Family & Pets

Should we still be using RATs to test for COVID? 4 key questions answered

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hassan-vally-202904">Hassan Vally</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> We’re currently navigating <a href="https://www.thenewdaily.com.au/life/health/2023/11/15/covid-australia-eighth-wave">an eighth wave</a> of <a href="https://theconversation.com/were-in-a-new-covid-wave-what-can-we-expect-this-time-216820">COVID infections</a> in Australia. However the threat COVID poses to us is significantly less than it has ever been, thanks to immunity we’ve acquired through <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00801-5/fulltext">a combination</a> of prior infection and vaccination. That said, COVID is by no means behind us. The threat of severe illness remains higher for many people, and we’re all potentially at risk of developing <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/covid-19/long-covid">long COVID</a>. While many people appear to be doing fewer rapid antigen tests (RATs) than they used to – if any at all – with rising cases, and as we head towards the festive season, testing continues to be important. So what do you need to know about testing in this wave? Here are four key questions answered. <h2>1. When should I do a RAT?</h2> There are a few situations where determining your COVID status is important to inform your actions, particularly during an uptick in infections. With more circulating virus, your index of suspicion that you have COVID if you’re experiencing cold-like symptoms should be higher. RATs work best when they’re used to confirm whether you have COVID when you <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/how-testing-works-covid-19">have respiratory symptoms</a> and are infectious. So the primary use of RATs should be to determine your COVID status when you’re sick. A positive test should prompt you to isolate, and if you’re eligible, to seek antivirals. Testing might also be worthwhile if you’ve come into contact with someone with COVID but you haven’t developed symptoms. If you find you have in fact contracted the virus, you can take steps to avoid spreading it to other people (you can infect others even <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/what-is-asymptomatic-covid#prevalence">when you’re asymptomatic</a>). This is especially important if you’re going to be socialising in large groups or in contact with people who are vulnerable. Another situation in which to consider testing, particularly at this time of year, is before attending large social gatherings. While the reliability of a RAT is never perfect, do the test as close to the event as possible, because your disease status <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/omicron-rapid-test-hour-before-party-not-day-before-expert-2021-12">can change quickly</a>. <h2>2. Should I test multiple times?</h2> Yes. RATs are not as sensitive as PCR tests, which is the trade-off we make for being able to do this test at home and <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/public-health-officials-pursue-covid-19-tests-that-trade-precision-for-speed-11599562800">getting a rapid result</a>. This means that while if you test positive with a RAT you can be very confident you have COVID, if you test negative, you cannot be as confident that you don’t have COVID. That is, the test may give you a false negative result. Although RATs from different manufacturers have different accuracies, all RATs approved by Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration must have a sensitivity of <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-home-use/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia#:%7E:text=For%20rapid%20antigen%20tests%2C%20this,specificity%20of%20at%20least%2098%25.">at least 80%</a>. The way to increase your confidence in a negative result is to do multiple RATs serially – each negative test increases the confidence you can have that you don’t have COVID. If you have symptoms and have tested negative after your first RAT, <a href="https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/home-covid-19-antigen-tests-take-steps-reduce-your-risk-false-negative-results-fda-safety">the advice</a> is to repeat the test after 48 hours, and potentially a third time after another 48 hours if the second test is also negative. <h2>3. Do RATs detect the latest variants?</h2> Since RATs <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/covid-19/testing#:%7E:text=Rapid%20antigen%20tests%2C%20or%20RATs,of%20proteins%20of%20the%20virus.">detect particular surface proteins</a> on SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID), it’s theoretically possible that as the virus evolves, the reliability of these tests may be affected. However, RATs were designed to detect a part of the virus that is not as likely to mutate, so the hope is these tests <a href="https://www.health.com/do-covid-tests-work-new-variants-7967102">will continue to hold up</a> as SARS-CoV-2 evolves. The performance of RATs is continually being assessed by manufacturers. So far, there’s been no change reported in the ability of these tests to <a href="https://www.ama.com.au/articles/tga-updated-advice-rats-nearing-expiry-and-rats-efficacy-current-strains#:%7E:text=The%20TGA%20has%20received%20evidence,19%20RAT%20post%2Dmarket%20review.">detect the latest variants</a>. <h2>4. Can I rely on expired RATs?</h2> At this point in the pandemic, you might have a few expired tests at the back of your cupboard. Technically the most appropriate advice is to say you should never use a diagnostic test <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-home-use/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia">past its expiry date</a>. As a general principle the performance of a test cannot be guaranteed beyond this date. The risk is that over time the components of the RAT degrade and if you use a test that’s not working optimally, it’s more likely to indicate <a href="https://www.health.com/can-you-use-expired-covid-test-6827970">you don’t have COVID</a> when you actually do, which may have consequences. However, as for all things COVID, the answer is not so black and white. Since these tests were new when they were introduced earlier in the pandemic, manufacturers didn’t have specific data on their performance over time, and so the expiry dates given were necessarily conservative. It’s likely these tests will work beyond the expiry dates on the packet, but just how long and how well they work is a bit of an unknown, so we need to be cautious. The other thing to consider is ensuring you store RATs correctly. Storage instructions should be found on the packet, but the key issue is making sure they’re not exposed to extreme temperatures. In particular, <a href="https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/how-to-properly-store-your-at-home-covid-19-rapid-antigen-tests-c-5465412">high temperatures</a> may damage the chemicals in the test which may reduce its sensitivity. <h2>The path from here</h2> Regular upticks in COVID cases are something we’re going to have to get used to. At these times, we should all be a bit more cautious about looking after ourselves and others as we go about our lives. What this looks like will vary for different people depending on their personal circumstances. However, being up to date with <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-new-covid-booster-vaccines-can-i-get-one-do-they-work-are-they-safe-217804">booster vaccinations</a>, having a plan for <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/covid-19/oral-treatments">accessing antivirals</a> if you’re eligible, <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-covid-surging-should-i-wear-a-mask-217902">wearing masks</a> in high-risk settings and testing all continue to play an important role in responding to COVID.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218016/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hassan-vally-202904">Hassan Vally</a>, Associate Professor, Epidemiology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-still-be-using-rats-to-test-for-covid-4-key-questions-answered-218016">original article</a>.

Body

Worried about getting a blood test? 5 tips to make them easier (and still accurate)

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sapha-shibeeb-1481231">Sapha Shibeeb</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/rmit-university-1063">RMIT University</a> Blood tests are a common medical procedure, offering valuable insights into a person’s health. Whether you’re getting a routine check-up, diagnosing a medical condition or monitoring treatment progress, understanding the process can make the experience more comfortable and effective. For the majority of patients, blood collections are a minor inconvenience. Others may feel <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0887618506000041">uneasy and anxious</a>. Preparation strategies can help get you through the procedure. <h2>How blood is collected</h2> During venipuncture (blood draw), the phlebotomist (blood collector) inserts a needle through the skin into a vein and a small amount of blood is collected and transferred into a test tube. Tubes are sent to a laboratory, where the blood is analysed. A laboratory technician may count or examine cells and measure the levels of minerals/salts, enzymes, proteins or other substances in the sample. For some tests, blood plasma is separated out by spinning (centrifuging) the sample. Others pass a light beam through the sample to determine the amount of a chemical present. For collection, the phlebotomist usually selects a vein in the crook of your elbow, where veins are readily accessible. Blood can also be drawn from veins in the wrists, fingers or heels. A tourniquet may be applied to restrict blood flow and make the chosen vein puff out. <h2>Different tests require different preparation</h2> Before a blood test, the GP or health-care provider will give you specific instructions. These may include fasting for up to 12 hours or temporarily discontinuing certain medications. It is crucial to follow these guidelines meticulously as they can significantly impact the accuracy of your test results. For example, fasting is required before glucose (blood sugar) and lipids (blood fats) testing because blood sugar and cholesterol levels typically increase after a meal. If the blood test requires fasting, you will be asked not to eat or drink (no tea, coffee, juice or alcohol) for about eight to 12 hours. Water is allowed but smoking should be avoided because it can increase <a href="https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/19/2/112/19825/Acute-Effect-of-Cigarette-Smoking-on-Glucose">blood sugar, cholesterol and triglyceride levels</a>. Generally, you will be asked to fast overnight and have the blood collection done in the morning. Fasting for longer than 15 hours could impact your results, too, by causing dehydration or the release of certain chemicals in the blood. If you have diabetes, you must consult your doctor prior to fasting because it can increase the risk of hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) in people with type 1 diabetes. Most type 2 diabetics can safely fast before a blood test but there are some exceptions, such as people who are taking certain medications including insulin. <h2>5 tips for a better blood test</h2> To improve your blood collection experience, consider these tips: 1. Hydrate Drink plenty of water right up to 30 minutes before your appointment. Adequate hydration improves blood flow, making your veins more accessible. Avoid <a href="https://academic.oup.com/labmed/article/34/10/736/2657269">strenuous exercise</a> before your blood test, which can increase some blood parameters (such as liver function) while decreasing others (such as sodium). 2. Loose clothing Wear clothing that allows easy access to your arms to ensure a less stressful procedure. 3. Manage anxiety If the sight of blood or the procedure makes you anxious, look away while the needle is inserted and try to keep breathing normally. Distraction can help – virtual reality has been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31889358/">trialled</a> to reduce needle anxiety in children. You could try bringing something to read or music to listen to. 4. Know your risk of fainting If you’re prone to fainting, make sure to inform the phlebotomist when you arrive. You can have your blood drawn while lying down to minimise the risk of passing out and injury. Hydration helps maintain blood pressure and can also <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/01.CIR.0000101966.24899.CB">reduce the risk</a> of fainting. 5. Discuss difficult veins Some people have smaller or scarred veins, often due to repeated punctures, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4989034/">chemotherapy</a> or blood thinner use. In such cases, venipuncture may require multiple attempts. It is important to talk to the phlebotomist if you feel discomfort or significant pain. A finger prick can be performed as an alternative for some tests, such as blood glucose levels. But other comprehensive tests require larger blood volume. <h2>Blood draws after lymph node removal</h2> Historically, there were concerns about drawing blood from an arm that had undergone lymph node removal. This was due to the risk of <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/side-effects/lymphedema/lymphedema-pdq#:%7E:text=Lymphedema%20is%20the%20build%2Dup,the%20way%20that%20it%20should.">lymphedema</a>, a condition marked by fluid build-up in the affected arm. Lymph nodes may have been removed (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564397/#:%7E:text=Lymph%20node%20dissection%2C%20also%20known,surgical%20management%20of%20malignant%20tumors.">lymphadenectomy</a>) for cancer diagnosis or treatment. However, a <a href="https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2015.61.5948">2016 study</a> showed people who’ve had lymph nodes removed are not at a higher risk of developing lymphedema following blood draws, even when drawing blood from the affected arm. <h2>After your blood test</h2> The whole blood test procedure usually lasts no more than a few minutes. Afterwards, you may be asked to apply gentle pressure over a clean dressing to aid clotting and reduce swelling. If you do experience swelling, bruising or pain after a test, follow general first aid procedures to alleviate discomfort. These include applying ice to the site, resting the affected arm and, if needed, taking a pain killer. It is usually recommended you do not do heavy lifting for a few hours after a blood draw. This is to prevent surges in blood flow that could prevent clotting where the blood was taken.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216073/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sapha-shibeeb-1481231">Sapha Shibeeb</a>, Senior lecturer in Laboratory Medicine , <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/rmit-university-1063">RMIT University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-getting-a-blood-test-5-tips-to-make-them-easier-and-still-accurate-216073">original article</a>.

Body

‘He was horrific!’: Nearly two thirds of family historians are distressed by what they find – should DNA kits come with warnings?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-moore-1446031">Susan Moore</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a> In 1853, my great great grandmother Charlotte died giving birth to her 13th child, in a tent on the banks of the Yarra River in what is now South Melbourne – but was then an overcrowded, muddy hellhole known as <a href="https://blogs.slv.vic.gov.au/our-stories/canvas-town-a-floating-city-devoured-by-the-sun/">Canvas Town</a>. The baby, William, died shortly afterwards. Researching Charlotte’s story made me both sad for her loss and angry at the powerlessness of women’s lives then. I’m not the only one to have experienced intense emotions – both negative and positive – while researching my forebears. On Facebook pages, in <a href="https://time.com/5492642/dna-test-results-family-secret-biological-father/">media stories</a> and <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/ondemand/tv-series/who-do-you-think-you-are">on TV</a>, you’ll find a flood of hobby genealogists discovering shocking things about their ancestors – or even their own identity. My recent research revealed about two thirds of family historians have experienced <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2313-5778/7/2/26">strong negative emotions</a> like sorrow or anger through their hobby. And nearly all respondents had experienced strong positive emotions such as joy or pride. <h2>Passionate ‘kin keepers’</h2> In 2019, Doreen Rosenthal and I surveyed 775 Australian hobbyist family historians to examine their <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Psychology-of-Family-History-Exploring-Our-Genealogy/Moore-Rosenthal-Robinson/p/book/9780367820428">motivations</a>. They were adults aged between 21 and 93, but most were older and the median age was 63. The majority (85%) were women. This seems to be typical of hobbyist family historians. Women often take on the role of “kin keeper” – and have the time to devote to it when they’ve finished rearing children and have retired from paid work. Survey respondents described why they were passionately engaged with their hobby – and how it made them feel. Some 48% “sometimes” felt strong negative emotions about what they found, while 15% did “often”. There were five common distress triggers. <h2>1. Ancestors behaving badly</h2> The first and most common distress trigger was the discovery of ancestors who had behaved badly – either as individuals, or by profiting from unjust social conditions. Finding these forebears made family historians feel confronted, shocked and sometimes ashamed. They said things like: "[The worst thing was] finding the bigamist! He was horrific!! Very confronting thinking that I have some of his blood in my veins!" And: "[It was] difficult finding that ancestors may have been involved in unsavoury behaviours or events. The problem is trying to understand the context of how they were able to do things that are socially and legally unacceptable today and not things I can be proud of." <h2>2. Ancestors treated cruelly</h2> It was also distressing to discover ancestors who had been cruelly treated. This elicited disturbing, even “heartbreaking” feelings – and, at least implicitly, indignation at injustice. Many were deeply moved by what their ancestors experienced. As one survey respondent put it: "What is unexpected is the relationships that can be formed with those who are no longer with us. That I can be moved by the plight of my paternal step great great grandmother who was incarcerated in a mental institution from 1913 to 1948 without review, without visitors, to get her out of the way." <h2>3. Sad stories</h2> Sadness was often specifically mentioned. As in the case of my great great grandmother who died in childbirth, sadness was usually a response to the hardships and tragedies ancestors faced in more challenging times. Women commonly did not survive childbirth, neonatal deaths were frequent, people died of diseases medical science has now conquered. Poverty was rife and war a constant threat. "[It was difficult] discovering the tragedies encountered by my Irish ancestors who came to Australia and their struggles and heartbreaking stories of survival for the next three generations." "[It is distressing] to uncover particularly sad and desperate times in some ancestors’ lives. For example, a destitute widow who admitted her child to an orphan asylum for three years, only to have her child die of typhoid fever within two weeks of returning home." <h2>4. Family secrets and betrayal</h2> The fourth distress trigger was a belief by the family history researcher that they had been betrayed by other family members: through secrets, lies and feeling their lived experience was ignored or denied. This is particularly likely for those who discover “secrets” about their parentage – for example, the late-life discovery of adoption, parental infidelity or previously unknown siblings. Trust is damaged. If family members can lie about these important things, what else might they lie about? As one woman commented: "My mother’s half-sister did not accept that she shared a father with my mother. My great grandmother lied about who my grandfather’s father was. My great great grandmother also lied. All these lies were very distressing." <h2>5. Moral dilemmas</h2> Finally, several respondents expressed doubt and confusion at the moral dilemmas they faced on discovering information that could greatly distress other living relatives. Should they tell or not? An emotional burden attaches to withholding potentially distressing information of this kind. Yet there is also guilt and fear about the possible outcomes of sharing it. "I knew an aunt had an illegitimate child before she married. Through DNA I found her granddaughter. I have yet to inform this girl who she is. I don’t feel it’s my right as she has absolutely no idea of any adoption of her father." "A really distressing find was that my great aunt’s husband had committed a terrible murder. I have not been able to speak about this with the descendants of the couple." <h2>Healthy outcomes from bad feelings</h2> Sometimes these distressing feelings can promote healthy, growth-enhancing outcomes. After the initial shock, some traumatic genealogical discoveries lead to a greater understanding of the past and its influence. Placing ancestors’ maladaptive or distressing behaviours, or their misfortunes, into historical and social context can help with acceptance and forgiveness, and stimulate emotional healing and personal growth. Initial feelings of distress about past injustices and tragedies are sometimes replaced by admiration for the strength and resilience of one’s forebears. This can positively influence personal wellbeing and resilience. <h2>How can family and professionals help?</h2> I processed my great great grandmother’s story by writing it down and sharing it with family members. We reworked our sadness at her fate into a positive family narrative, emphasising her bravery and the strengths her surviving children showed. Support can mean just disclosing these stories to family members, friends and other family historians. But for some, it may be helpful to discuss these topics privately with a counsellor or therapist, especially if they’ve led to a breakdown in family relationships or an assault on one’s sense of identity. Counsellors and psychologists should develop strategies to support clients distressed by genealogical findings – and encourage them to use their new knowledge for personal growth and greater understanding of family dynamics. Should providers of genealogical research products (especially DNA tests) educate their customers about their products’ potential to cause distress? Trigger warnings might be overkill. But they could issue lists of support resources for those who are upset or disoriented by their findings. As more people gain access to more genealogical data – with the potential to challenge identity and uncover family secrets – it’s worth thinking about.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207430/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-moore-1446031">Susan Moore</a>, Emeritus Professor, Faculty of Health, Arts and Design, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/he-was-horrific-nearly-two-thirds-of-family-historians-are-distressed-by-what-they-find-should-dna-kits-come-with-warnings-207430">original article</a>.

Family & Pets

Put your Star Wars knowledge to the test

While May 4 is not a public holiday, for passionate Star Wars fans around the world, it may as well be. Whether you prefer to dress-up with friends and celebrate with a mega movie marathon - after hours spent deciding which trilogy to begin with, of course - or scroll your favourite forums to find that next snippet of news about any upcoming projects, it’s fun to have the odd fun fact to drop into conversation, whether or not your present company particularly wants to hear it. And now’s the time to put your knowledge to the test, with some Star Wars trivia to challenge and to impress - especially if you get that perfect 15/15. So, “may the Force be with you”, and don’t forget to scroll to the bottom for the answers! 1. What was the false working title used to mask production for Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi in 1982? A: Blue Moon B: Blue Harvest C: Force Squadron D: Galaxy’s Edge 2. The term ‘Ewok’ was never said aloud in the original trilogy. A: True B: False 3. Who delivered the line “congratulations, you are being rescued” in Rogue One: A Star Wars Story? A: Cassian Andor B: C-3PO C: K-2SO D: Orson Krennic 4. How many actresses have portrayed (in the live action films) the leader of the Rebel Alliance, Mon Mothma? A: 4 B: 3 C: 2 D: 1 5. Which movie features the most stop-motion animation? A: The Phantom Menace B: Empire Strikes Back C: Return of the Jedi D: A New Hope 6. Why are porgs so prominent in The Last Jedi? A: Director Rian Johnson was asked by a crew member’s child to include the feathered friends B: The marketing team had requested something small and fuzzy for the younger audience C: Porgs were inspired by early concept art for BB-8 that they didn’t want to toss aside completely D: The island on which they filmed was home to puffins and it was easier just to tie them in 7. Yoda shares a voice actor with which iconic Muppet? A: Miss Piggy B: Kermit C: Gonzo D: Swedish Chef 8. How many films does the Rebel Alliance’s Blue Squadron appear in? A: 1 B: 2 C: 3 D: 4 9. Which phrase can be heard in every Star Wars movie? A: “There’s no such thing as luck.” B: “Rebellions are built on hope.” C: “I have a bad feeling about this.” D: “Never underestimate a droid.” 10. In The Phantom Menace, Qui-Gon Jinn used which common household item as his communicator? A: A lint brush B: A torch C: A tin of shoe polish D: A razor 11. How many Sith can there be at any one time? A: 8 B: 6 C: 4 D: 2 12. What was Luke Skywalker originally going to be called? A: Luke Stardestroyer B: Luke Starkiller C: Luke Skykiller D: Luke Lars 13. The noise from passing which object served as the inspiration for lightsaber sounds? A: A radio B: A microwave C: A television D: A racecar 14. Which quote is correct? A: “No, I am your father.” B: “Luke, I am your father.” 15. Who built C-3PO? A: Luke Skywalker B: Jar Jar Binks C: Shmi Skywalker D: Anakin Skywalker Images: Getty ANSWERS: <blockquote> 1: A, 2: A, 3: C, 4: C, 5: B, 6: D, 7: A, 8: A, 9: C, 10: D, 11: D, 12: B, 13: C, 14: A, 15: D </blockquote>

Movies

00-No: US traveller puts border security to the test with a golden gun

A 28-year-old traveller from the United States has been arrested after Australian Border Force officers allegedly discovered a firearm in her luggage. According to a report on the ABF website, the weapon - a 24-carat gold-plated handgun - was unregistered, and the passenger was not in possession of “a permit to import or possess the firearm in Australia.” If convicted, she will face up to 10 years of imprisonment. And while she was arrested and charged, she was released on bail at Downing Centre Local Court, and is expected to face court again in a month’s time. She remains subject to visa cancellation, and faces the likelihood of being removed from Australia. As ABF Enforcement and Detained Goods East Commander Justin Bathurst explained, the discovery was made with a combination of ABC officer skills and detection technology, one that served to prevent a dangerous weapon from entering the Australian community. “Time and time again, we have seen just how good ABF officers are at targeting and stopping illegal, and highly dangerous, goods from crossing Australia's border," he said. “The ABF is Australia's first and most important line of defence. ABF officers are committed to protecting our community by working with law enforcement partners to prevent items like unregistered firearms getting through at the border." Photos distributed by the ABF present the image of the gun in its case, as well as a scan of the passenger’s luggage, with the gun clearly visible among the rest of her possessions. While travellers on domestic flights within the United States are able to carry firearms in their checked luggage - granted they are unloaded and securely locked away, and the proper authorities have been informed - Australia has much stricter laws surrounding firearms. In the wake of a 1996 Tasmanian tragedy, in which 35 people lost their lives to a gunman, all automatic and semi-automatic weapons were outlawed in the country. Meanwhile, in the United States, a frightening sum of 6,301 were confiscated at checkpoints as of December 2022, according to the Transportation Security Administration. For many, the news was broken on social media, with comments sections reflecting the shock - and disapproval - of the masses, with the occasional 007 reference thrown in. “Smuggling firearms into Australia is a serious offence,” wrote one on Twitter, “and should be met with the full force of the law as it endangers citizen safety.” “That’s a fantastic bit of security work by our airport staff,” someone commended. Another had one very important question, asking “how did she get it out of the US to begin with...??? TSA should have caught that at the airport before she even left. Even if it was in a checked bag, it still had to be declared.” Images: Australian Border Force

Travel Trouble

Madeleine McCann's parents speak out after DNA test results

Madeleine McCann's parents have spoken out after the results of Julia Faustyna's DNA test have returned. Julia Faustyna, a 21-year-old Polish woman, has been claiming to be the missing British child in a high-profile campaign that has seen her undergo a DNA test to prove her identity. The DNA results determined that Julia is not Maddie, despite Julia's claims of having similar facial features, suffering an abusive childhood and had starting to question her parentage as a result. Private detective Dr Fia Johansson arranged for Julia to give samples in the US for extensive DNA tests - including a DNA test similar to a 23andMe test, which established she is not Madeleine. The test looked into her heritage, and showed that she is from Poland, with some Lithuanian and Romanian heritage, <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/21808585/who-julia-wendell-madeleine-mccann/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Sun</a> reported, but nothing to suggest any link to the McCann's. In response, a spokesman for Madeleine’s parents Kate and Gerry McCann said, “There isn’t anything to report at this time. If and when there is, it will come from The Metropolitan Police.” Julia is also facing a nervous wait for the results of further health tests as doctors fear she <a href="https://oversixty.co.nz/news/news/sad-health-news-for-woman-claiming-to-be-madeleine-mccann" target="_blank" rel="noopener">may have leukaemia</a>, Dr Johansson - with Julia’s permission - revealed to The Sun. She said, “Her health is very poor she has bad asthma and she suffers lots of pain in her bones." “She is booked in for a CT and MRI scan because of the pain in her bones." “Her blood work is also abnormal so my doctor here in the US is investigating whether she could have leukaemia so we are awaiting the results of that." “And if she needs any treatment we will make sure she gets that.” Image credits: Getty Images

News

Historic Swedish sailing ship slow to give up its secrets

<div> The Swedish ship Vasa was supposed to be a beacon of military might when it launched in 1628, but it sank after sailing just over a kilometre, killing roughly 30 people in the process. Since its recovery in 1961, the ship, its contents and the people who perished with it have become a valuable insight into 17th-century Swedish life. Now, an international team of researchers has looked closer at one of the skeletons, referred to as G, and have confirmed that it’s female. “Through osteological analysis it has been possible to discover a great deal about these people, such as their age, height and medical history. Osteologists recently suspected that G could be female, on the basis of the pelvis. DNA analysis can reveal even more,” says Dr Fred Hocker, director of research at the Vasa Museum, Sweden. <div><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/shipwrecks-habitats-microbiomes/"> </a></div> “It is very difficult to extract DNA from bone which has been on the bottom of the sea for 333 years, but not impossible”, says Professor Marie Allen, a forensic geneticist at Uppsala University in Sweden. “Already some years ago we had indications that skeleton G was not a man but a woman. Simply put, we found no Y-chromosomes in G’s genetic material. But we could not be certain and wanted to confirm the result.” They were able to do that with a technique developed by the US Department of Defense’s Armed Forces Medical Examiner System’s Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFMES-AFDIL). “We took new samples from bones for which we had specific questions. AFMES-AFDIL has now analysed the samples, and we have been able to confirm that G was a woman, thanks to the new test,” says Allen. Allen, along with AFMES-AFDIL collaborator Dr Kimberly Andreaggi, is now investigating the DNA for more detail about G. “Today we can extract much more information from historic DNA than we could earlier and methods are being continuously refined. We can say if a person was predisposed to certain illnesses, or even very small details, such as if they had freckles and wet or dry ear wax,” says Allen. The Vasa Museum, meanwhile, is collecting information for a book about the people who died on the ship. “We want to come as close to these people as we can. We have known that there were women on board Vasa when it sank, and now we have received confirmation that they are among the remains,” says museum historian Dr Anna Maria Forssberg. “I am currently researching the wives of seamen, so for me this is especially exciting, since they are often forgotten even though they played an important role for the navy.” </div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/vasa-shipwreck-female/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Ellen Phiddian. Images: Getty </div>

Technology

Hilarious footage emerges of Sam Neill's James Bond screen test

Jurassic Park star Sam Neill appeared on the Today show to discuss his career and new memoir 'Did I Ever Tell You This?' but the hosts had other plans. Karl Stefanovic, Sarah Abo and Brooke Boney managed to dig up an old screen test that left the 75-year-old red-faced. "Oh, my God, no - That is so cruel to play that, so cruel," a flustered Neil said, as footage from his James Bond audition started rolling. In the video, a young Neill armed with a gun and donning an unbuttoned shirt bursts into a bedroom-to the surprise of a naked woman- and says the famous line "My friends called me Bond, James Bond". Neill said he was thankful that he didn’t get the part and that someone else was chosen to do the role. "I felt so awkward all day that we made that thing and it just went on and on and on," he said. "I am so relieved they offered it to someone else, they are welcome to it - you don't want to be the Bond that no-one likes, you know - that is a fate worse than death." Although he didn’t get the role of agent 007, the actor has starred in three of the Jurassic Park films, Event Horizon, The Dish and Peter Rabbit. He also told the Today show hosts that he never intended on becoming a professional actor and his success was completely unexpected. "I never really imagined I would have a career in film, let alone a career as an actor," he said. "At the rather advanced age of 30 I suddenly realised I could make a living at what I loved best and I never looked back until I wrote (the memoir) and it has been good to look back - it has been really good for me." Image: Today Show, Channel 9

Movies

Lie detection tests have worked the same way for 3,000 years – and they’re still hopelessly inaccurate

Popular culture is fascinated with the ability to detect liars. Lie detector tests are a staple of police dramas, and TV shows such as Poker Face feature “human polygraphs” who detect deception by picking up tell-tale signs in people’s behaviour. Records of attempts to detect lies, whether by technical means or by skilled observers, go back at least 3,000 years. Forensic science lie detection techniques have become <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2005.00166.x">increasingly popular</a> since the invention of the polygraph early in the 20th century, with the latest methods involving advanced brain imaging. Proponents of lie detection technology sometimes <a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/3091709/lying_brain">make grandiose claims</a>, such as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09566-y">recent paper</a> that said “with the help of forensic science and its new techniques, crimes can be easily solved”. Despite these claims, an infallible lie detection method has yet to be found. In fact, most lie detection methods don’t detect lies at all – instead, they register the physiological or behaviour signs of stress or fear. <h2>From dry rice to red-hot irons</h2> The <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1529100610390861">earliest recorded lie detection method</a> was used in China, around 1000 BC. It involved suspects placing rice in their mouths then spitting it out: wet rice indicated innocence, while dry rice meant guilty. In India, around 900 BC, <a href="http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2844&context=jclc">one method</a> used to detect poisoners was observations of shaking. In ancient Greece a rapid pulse rate was taken to indicate deceit. The Middle Ages saw barbaric forms of lie detection used in Europe, such as the red-hot iron method which involved suspected criminals placing their tongue, often multiple times, on a red-hot iron. Here, a burnt tongue indicated guilt. <h2>What the polygraph measures</h2> Historical lie detection methods were based in superstition or religion. However, in the early 20th century a purportedly scientific, objective, lie detection machine was invented: the polygraph. The <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228091.pdf">polygraph measures</a> a person’s respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductance (sweating) during questioning. Usually a “control question” about a crime is asked, such as “Did you do it?” The person’s response to the control question is then compared to responses to neutral or less provocative questions. Heightened reactions to direct crime questions are taken to indicate guilt on the test. <h2>The overconfidence of law enforcers</h2> Some law enforcement experts claim they don’t even need a polygraph. They can detect lies simply by observing the behaviour of a suspect during questioning. Worldwide research shows that law enforcers are often <a href="https://doi.org/10.5093/apj2022a4">confident they can detect lying</a>. Many assume a suspect’s nonverbal behaviour reveals deceit. A <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/14636641111134314/full/html">2011 study with Queensland police</a> revealed many officers were confident they could detect lying. Most favoured a focus on nonverbal behaviour even over available evidence. However, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-96334-1_3">research shows</a> that law enforcers, despite their confidence, are often not very good at detecting lying. Law enforcement officers are not alone in thinking they can spot a liar. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022105282295">Global studies</a> have found that people around the world believe lying is accompanied by specific nonverbal behaviours such as gaze aversion and nervousness. <h2>What’s really being tested</h2> Many historical and current lie detection methods seem underpinned by the plausible idea that liars will be nervous and display observable physical reactions. These might be shaking (such as in the ancient Indian test for poisoners, and the nonverbal behaviour method used by some investigators), a dry mouth (the rice-chewing test and the hot-iron method), increased pulse rate (the ancient Greek method and the modern polygraph), or overall heightened physiological reactions (the polygraph). However, there are two major problems with using behaviour based on fear or stress to detect lying. The first problem: how does one distinguish fearful innocents from fearful guilty people? It is likely that an innocent person accused of a crime will be fearful or anxious, while a guilty suspect may not be. This is borne out with the polygraph’s <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10420/chapter/10#218">high false-positive rate</a>, meaning innocent people are deemed guilty. Similarly, some police have assumed that <a href="https://cqu-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/f/1rb43gr/TN_cdi_informaworld_taylorfrancisbooks_9781843926337">innocent, nervous suspects were guilty</a> based on inaccurate interpretations of behavioural observations. The second major problem with lie detection methods based on nervous behaviour is there is <a href="https://journals.copmadrid.org/apj/art/apj2019a9">no evidence</a> that specific nonverbal behaviours reliably accompany deception. <h2>Miscarriages of justice</h2> Despite what we know about the inaccuracy of polygraph tests, they haven’t gone away. In the US, they are still used in some police interrogations and <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/inside-polygraph-job-screening-black-mirror/">high-security job interviews</a>. In the UK, lie detector tests are used for <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/domestic-abuse-bill-2020-factsheets/mandatory-polygraph-tests-factsheet">some sex offenders on probation</a>. And in China, the use of polygraphs in law enforcement may <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938414005964?via%3Dihub">even be increasing</a>. Australia has been less enthusiastic in adopting lie-detection machines. In New South Wales, the use of lie-detector findings was barred from court in 1983, and an attempt to present polygraph evidence to a court in Western Australia in 2003 <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1375/pplt.2004.11.2.359">also failed</a>. Many historical and current lie detection methods emulate each other and are based on the same assumptions. Often the <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/13865">only difference</a> is the which part of the body or physical reaction they focus on. Using fallible lie detection methods <a href="https://journals.copmadrid.org/apj/art/apj2022a4">contributes to wrongful convictions</a> and miscarriages of justice. Therefore, it is important that criminal-justice practitioners are educated about fallacious lie detection methods, and any new technique grounded in fear or stress-based reactions should be rejected. Despite outward appearances of technological advancement, over many millennia little has changed. Fearful innocents remain vulnerable to wrongful assumptions of guilt, which is good news for the fearless guilty. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/lie-detection-tests-have-worked-the-same-way-for-3-000-years-and-theyre-still-hopelessly-inaccurate-200741" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Images: Getty

Technology

Julia Faustyna takes DNA test to prove wild identity claims

Julia Faustyna, the Polish woman who is convinced she is the missing Madeleine McCann, has reportedly taken a DNA test to prove her claim. However, in a stunning twist to the tale, Faustyna’s private investigation with spokesperson Dr Fia Johansson has led the young woman to consider the possibility that she may actually be another missing child - Livia Schepp, who went missing with her twin sister in Switzerland in 2011. “I’ve spoken to her about this and she is open to the fact she could be any missing child out there,” Dr Johansson said while speaking to The Sun. “Not just Madeleine. Julia wants to know the truth about who she is.” While Faustyna’s main argument has involved the physical similarities between herself and Madeleine McCann, one of the pivotal points in her story is how she recognised a suspect from McCann’s case - a man she has named as her own abuser. “One of the reasons she made the connection to Madeleine is because one of the suspects in Madeleine’s case looks very much like a man who she says abused her as a child,” Dr Johansson explained. “But the same man could be connected to Madeleine and other missing children, this is how predators and traffickers work.” “Julia has taken a DNA test,” she confirmed, “and we are investigating if it’s possible to check her DNA with that of [the] missing Livia. We are investigating all possibilities at this stage.” Livia Schepp - and her twin sister Alessia - went missing when they were six, after their father abducted them from Switzerland in 2011. Days later, he took his own life in Italy, and when police discovered the body, the twins were nowhere to be seen. Faustyna, who claims to have post-traumatic amnesia due to sexual abuse in her childhood, lacks clear recollection of her formative years, and has stated while she can recall holidays, she doesn’t “recall my mother being there, for example, or my stepfather, much less my dad.” Whether or not any of Faustyna’s theories are true, the public will have to keep speculating, as no results have yet been shared. However, Faustyna’s viral “@iammadeleinemccan”, where she was sharing updates and side-by-side comparisons with her followers, has since been deleted from the platform. The removal coincides with reports of the DNA test, and after Faustyna closed both her Facebook and Tiktok accounts, disputing her parent’s claim that she was only in this for attention when she said “if you don’t like me, please unfollow. I don’t want fans or followers.” Images: Instagram, Twitter

News

Is my RAT actually working? How to tell if your COVID test can detect Omicron

You’ve tested negative for COVID using a rapid antigen test (RAT), but are a close contact of a positive family member and have symptoms. So you might be wondering if you’re really COVID-negative or if the test is working as well as it should. There are many reasons why your RAT may not give you <a href="https://theconversation.com/15-things-not-to-do-when-using-a-rapid-antigen-test-from-storing-in-the-freezer-to-sampling-snot-176364">the results</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-rats-are-negative-but-i-still-think-i-might-have-covid-should-i-get-a-pcr-test-194527">you expect</a>. But one factor is whether RATs can detect the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID). We know the virus has mutated during the pandemic. So health authorities and researchers are investigating whether RATs can still detect the <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants">more recent versions</a> of the virus. The good news is, based on the <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/post-market-review-of-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests-table.pdf">limited data released</a>, all RATs meant for use at home in Australia that have been independently tested so far seem to be able to detect Omicron. The bad news is that not all RATs have been independently tested yet. Yours might be one of those. <h2>What do mutations have to do with RATs?</h2> RATs diagnose COVID infection by detecting specific viral proteins. So there are concerns that as the virus evolves and produces altered viral proteins, this may affect the tests’ ability to diagnose COVID as well as they detected previous variants. Whether RATs can adequately detect Omicron has been raised by authorities and researchers in various countries including <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/378/bmj-2022-071215">The Netherlands</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35458384/">Belgium</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">Chile</a>, as well as Australia. One <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jcm.01097-22">Australian study</a> tested six RATs on Delta, and Omicron lineages BA.4, BA.5 and BA.2.75. The researchers found the kits performed equally well across the different samples at higher viral loads (higher concentrations of the virus), although one kit’s overall sensitivity fell below minimum sensitivity requirements. However, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">some international studies</a> have found RATs are less able to detect Omicron, particularly when <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">viral loads are lower</a>. <h2>So what’s the case in Australia?</h2> Australia’s regulator, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), initially relied on <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/post-market-review-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests">test data</a> provided by RAT manufacturers to determine the test kit met World Health Organization <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/technical-specifications-for-selection-of-essential-in-vitro-diagnostics-for-sars-cov-2">standards</a> for acceptable sensitivity (ability to detect a positive case). The TGA also requires manufacturers to send updated test data as new variants arise to demonstrate their test still meets those WHO standards. But the TGA has also commissioned <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/post-market-review-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests">independent testing of RATs</a> to verify how well they detect the more recent COVID variants. They are tested for their ability to detect the wild-type virus (the original strain), the Delta variant, and the Omicron variant. The TGA does not state which specific lineages (descendents) of Omicron are included in the testing. As it completes its analysis on individual tests (or groups of tests), the TGA reports them in a <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/post-market-review-of-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests-table.pdf">table that’s publicly available</a>, which will be updated as more data come in. <h2>What does the table tell us?</h2> You can look up the brand name, manufacturer and batch number of the RAT you have at home. Look for those labelled “self-tests” (more on the different types of tests and their results later). The most important columns in the table are those that indicate whether the kit passed its independent validation. Look for four ticks to indicate the kit meets minimum standards for detecting the original virus, Delta and Omicron variants, and has passed the quality test. A cross indicates is has not passed that component of the validation. Haven’t found a result for your RAT? If a product comes in two versions – a self-test and a type of test used in health-care facilities known as a point-of-care test (POCT in the table) – only one may be tested. If that’s the case, the symbol † means testing was only done on one version and you can use those results for your test. Look for a matching registration number to make sure you’re comparing like with like. The final column indicates what type of data the manufacturer has provided. Some manufacturers have tested the sensitivity of their kits for Omicron lineages BA.4 and BA.5. <h2>What does the table not tell us?</h2> Just because your test has no ticks or crosses against it, this doesn’t mean it can’t detect Omicron. It could be that the independent validation has yet to be completed or uploaded to the table. So the jury is out. The table also does not tell us what lineages of Omicron were tested for, although in some cases the manufacturer has supplied clinical test data. The table data were only current as of October. Seeing as the number of cases of sub-variant infections <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-can-we-expect-from-this-latest-covid-wave-and-how-long-is-it-likely-to-last-194444">has risen since then</a>, so we don’t really know if that is impacting on the sensitivity of even those tests that have recently been validated. <h2>I’ve grappled with the table, now what?</h2> If your brand of RAT has the ticks, particularly for Omicron, it has been assessed has having an acceptable sensitivity. If you are buying a RAT, check the table to see if that brand has been tested for sensitivity to the Omicron variant. If your test has been sitting in a cupboard for months, check the expiry date before you use it. Also consider whether it has been stored at the correct temperature during that time (the instruction leaflet will tell you what that is). Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-my-rat-actually-working-how-to-tell-if-your-covid-test-can-detect-omicron-196210" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Body

There’s a serious ethical problem with some sunscreen testing methods – and you’re probably not aware of it

As summer approaches, we need to start remembering to slip on sun-protective clothing, slop on sunscreen, slap on a hat, seek shade where possible, and slide on sunglasses. When it comes to sunscreen, we all know we need to wear it to protect against the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can cause skin cancer. But what about the sun protection factor, known as the SPF rating, we see on our sunscreen bottles? It indicates the level of protection – but is it always what it says it is, and how is it actually tested? <h2>Risking human health for SPF testing</h2> While there have been some cases of <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/news/news/sunscreen-testing-ama-laboratories-condition-listing">sunscreens not matching up to their SPF claims</a>, this is the exception and not the norm. In Australia, we can be comfortable knowing these products are tightly regulated to ensure they are safe and meet their claimed SPF rating, according to current SPF testing methods. However, problems arise when it comes to how sunscreens are tested for their SPF rating. Most people would not be aware that the SPF value on their sunscreen bottles is determined by testing on humans. Ultimately, this means we are risking people’s health to test how effective our sunscreens are – and we urgently need to change this. <h2>How is sunscreen SPF tested?</h2> Once a sunscreen formulation has been developed by a manufacturer it needs to go through testing to ensure it only contains approved ingredients, and ultimately, that it does what it says it does. All sunscreen products available in Australia are <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/news/news/about-sunscreens">tested according to the Australian Standard to determine the SPF</a>. This is great and provides assurance of safety and quality for the consumer – but the problem is with how this testing is done. Currently, testing sunscreens on humans is the approved international standard to rate the UV protection level of a sunscreen. This testing involves volunteers wearing strictly defined amounts of sunscreen and being exposed to artificial solar <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/what-is-radiation/non-ionising-radiation/ultraviolet-radiation">UV radiation</a>. Performance is measured by determining the time it takes for erythema or redness to occur. <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-policy/skin-cancer-statistics-and-issues/sunburn">This is, basically, sunburn</a>; based on this, an SPF rating is assigned. <h2>Why is human testing of SPF a problem?</h2> If sunscreens only contain approved ingredients we know are safe, is it really a problem they are tested on humans? Sadly, yes. Human testing involves exposing people to harmful UV radiation, which we know can cause skin and eye damage, <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/radiation-sources/more-radiation-sources/sun-exposure">as well as being the leading cause of skin cancer</a>. This alone is <a href="https://www.phrp.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/PHRP3212205.pdf">unethical and unjustifiable</a>. There are also other issues associated with testing sunscreen on humans. For example, the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/phpp.12095">use of erythema to determine sunscreen effectiveness is highly subjective</a>, and may differ from one person to another, even for those with the same <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/pubs/RadiationProtection/FitzpatrickSkinType.pdf">skin type</a>. This makes the reliability of such testing methods questionable. Further, testing is only done on a small number of people (a minimum of <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian-regulatory-guidelines-for-sunscreens.pdf">ten people is required in Australia</a>). This is great for exposing as few people as possible to harmful UV radiation to determine a product’s SPF rating – but not so great when it comes to inclusiveness. Testing such a small number of people is not representative. It does not include all skin types and leads to real <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ics.12333">challenges in achieving reproducible results</a> across different laboratories testing the same product. The testing itself is also very expensive. This adds to the already high cost of buying sunscreens, and potentially limits manufacturers from developing new and better products. These, along with many other issues, highlight the urgency for non-human (in vitro) testing methods of a sunscreen’s effectiveness to be developed. <h2>Human-free SPF testing technology is in development</h2> While efforts have been made to develop non-human testing methods, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165993622002072">there remain several challenges</a>. <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/292777">These include</a> the materials used to simulate human skin (also known as substrates), difficulties in applying the sunscreen to these substrates, reproducibility of results, and ensuring that results are the same as what we see with human testing. However, scientists at <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/">RMIT University</a>, with support from the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (<a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/">ARPANSA</a>) and the <a href="https://www.cancervic.org.au/">Cancer Council Victoria</a>, are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165993622002072">working on a solution to this problem</a>. So far, they have developed a prototype sensor that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-06273-3">changes colour when exposed to UV radiation</a>. This <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-06273-3/figures/5">sensor</a> could be customised for human-free sunscreen testing, for example. Reliable in vitro testing methods will mean in the future, sunscreen manufacturers would be able to quickly make and test new and better sunscreens, without being limited by the time and cost constraints involved with human testing. So the next time you buy a bottle of sunscreen, look to purchase the highest-rated sunscreen of SPF 50+ – and know that work is underway on getting that rating classified in a more ethical way. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-a-serious-ethical-problem-with-some-sunscreen-testing-methods-and-youre-probably-not-aware-of-it-195359" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Beauty & Style

Urine sample test: new way to detect and screen for early stages of Alzheimer’s disease

When it comes to <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/alzheimers-peer-review/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>, an early diagnosis – one made well before signs of irreversible dementia are apparent – is key to providing effective intervention and treatment. Now early detection might be as simple as a urine test, allowing for wide-scale and early screening across large populations of the elderly. A collaboration of researchers in China investigated urine samples for biomarkers from a large group of patients with varying severity of Alzheimer’s disease, comparing them with healthy controls. A compound known as <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/molecule-of-the-week/archive/f/formic-acid.html?cid=home_motw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formic acid</a> (which is also produced by some ant and bee species) was a particularly sensitive marker for cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Significant increases in urinary formic acid levels were found in all samples from Alzheimer’s sufferers (including those with only early-stage subjective cognitive decline) as compared with those from the healthy controls. “Alzheimer’s disease is a continuous and concealed chronic disease, meaning that it can develop and last for many years before obvious cognitive impairment emerges,” say the authors. “The early stages of the disease occur before the irreversible dementia stage, and this is the golden window for intervention and treatment.” When blood samples of the participants were analysed for Alzheimer’s biomarkers in combination with the urinary formic acid level, the researchers were able to predict to what stage of the disease the patient had progressed. Their report is in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2022.1046066/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ageing</a>. Other methods currently used to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease, such as positron emission tomography brain scans, <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/medicine/alzheimers-blood-test-developed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive blood draws</a> and lumbar punctures, tend to be costly and invasive. Although other urinary biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease have been found, none have been able to detect the disease at its earliest stages. The links between urinary formic acid and Alzheimer’s disease are still not fully understood, but this research is an important step towards developing tools to diagnose and treat this debilitating condition amongst a vulnerable group in society. “Urinary formic acid showed an excellent sensitivity for early Alzheimer’s screening,” said the authors. “The detection of urine biomarkers of Alzheimer’s is convenient and cost-effective, and it should be performed during routine physical examinations of the elderly.” <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=227116&title=Urine+sample+test%3A+new+way+to+detect+and+screen+for+early+stages+of+Alzheimer%E2%80%99s+disease" width="1" height="1" data-spai-target="src" data-spai-orig="" data-spai-exclude="nocdn" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/urine-new-way-detect-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on Cosmos Magazine and was written by Clare Kenyon. Image: Getty Images </div>

Mind

Volcano breath test helps scientists predict deadly eruptions

Humanity has a long history of living in the shadows of active volcanoes. Prized for their rich, fertile soils – ideal for cultivating crops – and their local topography, it isn’t hard to see why living in active volcanic regions remains a worthwhile gamble. Volcanic eruptions, however, are notoriously difficult to predict but improving our diagnostic abilities is crucial for developing early warning procedures and evading disaster. External indicators such as earthquakes and deformation of the Earth’s crust are traditional methods of identifying an imminent eruption, however, not all eruptions give these early warning signs. But now a research team from the University of Tokyo has gained better insight into the relationship between changes in the magma composition and eruption, by studying the ratio of specific chemical isotopes in gas and steam emitted from fumaroles — holes and cracks in the earth’s surface. “When you compare a volcano with a human body, the conventional geophysical methods represented by observations of earthquakes and crustal deformation are similar to listening to the chest and taking body size measurements”, said Professor Hirochika Sumino from the Research Centre for Advanced Science and Technology, who led the study. “In these cases, it is difficult to know what health problem causes some noise in your chest or a sudden increase in your weight, without a detailed medical check. On the other hand, analysing the chemical and isotope composition of elements in fumarolic gases is like a breath or blood test. This means we are looking at actual material directly derived from magma to know precisely what is going on with the magma.” Previous research on gas associated with an eruption from a volcano in the Canary Islands in 2011 showed an increase in the ratio of heavier helium isotopes which are typical of mantle material. “We knew that the helium isotope ratio occasionally changes from a low value, similar to the helium found in the Earth’s crust, to a high value, like that in the Earth’s mantle, when the activity of magma increases,” said Sumino. “But we didn’t know why we had more mantle-derived helium during magmatic unrest.” Sumino and team sought the answers in fumerole gas around Kusatsu-Shirane, an active volcano 150 km northwest of Tokyo. Taking samples of the gas back to the lab every few months between 2014 and 2021, the researchers were able to ascertain precise measurements of the isotopic components, discovering a relationship between the ratio of argon-40 to helium-3 ( a ‘high value’ isotope of helium) and magmatic unrest. “Using computer models, we revealed that the ratio reflects how much the magma underground is foaming, making bubbles of volcanic gases which separate from the liquid magma,” explained Sumino. The extent to which the magma is foaming “controls how much magmatic gas is provided to the hydrothermal system beneath a volcano and how buoyant the magma is. The former is related to a risk of phreatic eruption, in which an increase in water pressure in the hydrothermal system causes the eruption. The latter would increase the rate of magma ascent, resulting in a magmatic eruption.” The research collaboration is now developing a portable type of mass spectrometer which could be used in the field for real time analysis, reducing the need to constantly collect and transport samples back to the lab – a challenging a time-consuming process. “Our next step is to establish a noble gas analysis protocol with this new instrument, to make it a reality that all active volcanoes — at least those which have the potential to cause disaster to local residents — are monitored 24 hours a day, seven days a week,” said Sumino. This article originally appeared on cosmosmagazine.com and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/volcano-breath-test-predict-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Clare Kenyon</a>. Image: Getty

Travel Trouble

“Loving grandfather” ousted as serial rapist

A local Bondi grandfather has been ousted by police as a serial rapist - one of the worst in New South Wales. Following a long 40 years of investigations and using new technology for DNA as well as a shocking 12 crime scenes, Keith “Maggo” Simms has been identified as a serial rapist. Dubbed “The Beast of Bondi”, Simms is believed to have raped and terrorised more than 30 women in Sydney's eastern suburbs from 1986 to 2001. He died earlier this year on February 20 at the age of 66. When Simms was ready to attack a woman, he would wear a balaclava and approach them with a knife, putting a hand across their mouth and threatening to kill them. It was only in 2016, when police received a weak DNA match to a relative of Simms, that they were eventually able to tie the crimes back to him. Unfortunately for his victims, Simms died before police were able to question him and get them some form of justice. His family also had no idea and referred to him as a “loving family man”, and when his wife found out she was shocked. “His family had no idea at all … we met with his wife and she was absolutely shocked,” Detective Sergeant Shelley Johns, from Strike Force Doreen said, The Daily Telegraph reported. Sex Crimes squad boss Detective Superintendent Jayne Doherty said that despite his death, it gives his victims a peace of mind knowing he’s not out there anymore. “It was important for the victim survivors and that is why we persevered. We wanted to let them know we were not just guessing it was him. It also meant we are not still looking for someone that is still out there,” she said. “So those women who are walking down the street and are still wondering: Is that him? They now know that person is deceased.” Images: The Daily Telegraph

Legal

Evidence that human evolution driven by major environmental pressures discovered

The genes of ancient humans might have changed substantially due to environmental pressures and change, say an international team of researchers. A widely held belief related to human evolution is that our ancient ancestors’ ability to fashion tools, shelter, and use advanced communication skills may have helped to shield them from large environmental impacts such as changing climate, disease and exposure to other events affecting mortality. But research led out of Australian Centre for Ancient DNA at the University of Adelaide suggests that beneficial genes may have played a more important role in preserving our ancestors. Until now, the sudden increase in frequency of these genes in human groups was masked by the exchange of DNA between people during reproduction. Now, analyses of more than one thousand ancient genomes dating as far back as 45,000 years ago have found historic signals showing genetic adaptation was more common than previously thought. The study of evolutionary events, says the study’s co-lead author Dr Yassine Souilmi, has increased substantially in recent years, as these are the points where human genetics take historic turns. “Evolutionary events [are] exactly what shape our genetic diversity today,” Souilmi tells Cosmos. “That’s what makes us vulnerable to certain diseases [and] resistant to others. “Having a good understanding of evolution, we can have a better understanding of who we are.” Previous research by the Centre has uncovered a range of evolutionary trends, from historic climate change causing the demise of ancestral lions and bears, to the first interactions between humans and coronaviruses 20,000 years ago. And the broader field of research into ancient DNA has shed light on important moments in human history. Only recently did analyses of ancient genes uncover locations on the human genome associated with surviving Yersinia pestis – the bacterium that causes the bubonic plague. <h2>Single events probably triggered selection</h2> This study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, has similarly found environmental events might have been more influential on evolution among Eurasian groups. Such events might lead to a point of natural selection. Take, for instance, the emergence of a pathogen. If such a disease could kill people, those who managed to survive and continue reproducing would pass down favourable traits to subsequent generations. “Natural selection acts in two different mechanisms,” says Souilmi. “It only cares about whether you’re procreating successfully… when it acts, it’s either killing a lot of people, [preventing] some people from reproducing successfully, or some people are just not finding mates because they have some sort of ailment that’s not allowing them to mate successfully, or might make them undesirable. “What we’re finding is that the signal of natural selection we detected in this [research] was likely a single event, because the signal is clustered in time in a very early migration out of Africa. “Not all of the [events] we detected occurred at the same time, but the bulk of them did.” <h2>A mirror to the present</h2> This ‘agnostic’ study did not seek to identify the external pressures leading to the selection events indicated in these ancient genes, but future research by the team will seek to uncover that information. Studies like this, or those into specific pressures like the influence of the Black Death or coronaviruses on humans, show the impact of environmental change on our genetics. Souilmi says this is both insightful and cautionary, as environmental change in the present could be studied by humans in the future. He speculates that changes in the Earth’s climate, or the emergence of new pathogens, likely imposed selection pressures on ancient groups, whether through forcing shortages or changes to food supply or imposing physiological stressors. “Very likely, it’s the environment, the temperature, the weather patterns, that would have somewhat impacted the dietary regime of our ancestors out of Africa, and pathogens would have driven this [genetic] adaptation, which has shaped our genetic diversity now,” Souilmi says. “The direct lesson, socially, now, is that if we’re ever faced with events that are similar to that, we are not as immune to extreme episodes of adaptation where a lot of people might die, or be unable to reproduce. “Unless we do something to counteract the environmental changes, or viruses, bacterial or other pandemics, it could be a bad thing.” This article originally appeared on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/human-evolution-driven-by-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Matthew Agius. Image: Shutterstock

Body

Neanderthals died out 40,000 years ago, but there has never been more of their DNA on Earth

Neanderthals have served as a reflection of our own humanity since they were first discovered in <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1856</a>. What we think we know about them has been shaped and moulded to fit our cultural trends, social norms and scientific standards. They have changed from diseased specimens to primitive sub-human lumbering cousins to <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/rethinking-neanderthals-83341003/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">advanced humans</a>. We now know Homo neanderthalensis were very similar to ourselves and we even met them and frequently interbred. But why did they go extinct, while we <a href="https://global.oup.com/ukhe/product/the-cradle-of-humanity-9780198704539?cc=gb&lang=en&" target="_blank" rel="noopener">survived, flourished and ended up taking over the planet</a>? Neanderthals evolved over 400,000 years ago, most likely from an earlier ancestor <a href="https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Homo heidelbergensis</a>. They were extremely successful and spread across an area from the Mediterranean to Siberia. They were highly intelligent, with brains on average <a href="https://www.livescience.com/60481-how-neanderthals-got-such-large-brains.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">bigger than Homo sapiens‘s</a>. They hunted for <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-neanderthals-may-have-been-more-sophisticated-hunters-than-we-thought-new-study-98870" target="_blank" rel="noopener">big game</a>, collected plants, fungi, and seafood, controlled fire to cook, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1907828116" target="_blank" rel="noopener">made composite tools</a>, made <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1112261109" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clothes from animal skins</a>, made beads from shells, and were able to <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1411529111" target="_blank" rel="noopener">carve symbols on to cave walls</a>. They took care of their young, old and weak, created shelters for protection, lived through harsh winters and warm summers, and they buried their dead. Neanderthals did meet our ancestors on several occasions over the course of tens of thousands of years and the two species shared the European continent for at least 14,000 years. They even <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03335-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mated with each other</a>. <h2>Death of a species</h2> The most significant difference between Neanderthals and ourselves is that they went extinct about 40,000 years ago. The precise cause of their demise still eludes us, but we think it was probably the result of a combination of factors. First the climate of the last ice age was very variable, shifting from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04600-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cold to warm and back again</a>, which put pressure on animal and plant food sources and meant Neanderthals constantly had to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jbi.12845" target="_blank" rel="noopener">adapt to environmental change</a>. Second there were never that many Neanderthals, with the overall population never exceeding the tens of thousands. They lived in groups of five to 15 individuals, compared with Homo Sapiens that had groups of up to <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-large-brains-evolved-thanks-to-an-ancient-arms-race-for-resources-and-mates-79183" target="_blank" rel="noopener">150 individuals</a>. These small isolated Neanderthal populations may have been increasingly genetically unsustainable. Third there was competition with other predators, particularly the <a href="https://theconversation.com/war-in-the-time-of-neanderthals-how-our-species-battled-for-supremacy-for-over-100-000-years-148205" target="_blank" rel="noopener">groups of modern humans</a> that emerged from Africa about 60,000 years ago. We speculate that many Neanderthals may have been assimilated into the larger bands of Homo sapiens. <h2>Where’s the evidence?</h2> Neanderthals left numerous traces for us to examine tens of thousands of years later, much of which can be seen at the special exhibition we have helped curate at the <a href="https://snm.ku.dk/english/exhibitions/neanderthal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>. Over the past 150 years we have collected fossil bones, stone and wooden tools, found trinkets and jewellery they left behind, uncovered burials, and now mapped their genome from ancient DNA. It seems that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03335-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">99.7% of Neanderthal</a> and modern human DNA is identical and they are our closest extinct relatives. Perhaps the most surprising fact was evidence of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03335-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">interbreeding</a> that has left traces of DNA in living humans today. Many Europeans and Asians have between 1% and 4% Neanderthal DNA while African people south of the Sahara have almost zero. Ironically, with a current world population of about 8 billion people, this means that there has never been more Neanderthal DNA on Earth. The Neanderthal genome also helps us understand more of what they looked like, as there is evidence that some Neanderthals evolved pale skin and red hair long before Homo sapiens. The many genes that are shared between Neanderthals and modern humans are linked to anything from the ability to taste bitter foods to the capacity to speak. We have also increased our knowledge of human health. For instance, some Neanderthal DNA that might have been beneficial to humans tens of thousands of years ago now seems to cause issues when combined with a modern western lifestyle. There are links to alcoholism, obesity, allergies, blood clotting, and <a href="https://institutions.newscientist.com/article/2077269-our-neanderthal-genes-linked-to-risk-of-depression-and-addiction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">depression</a>. Recently, scientists suggested an ancient gene variant from Neanderthals might increase the risk of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2026309118" target="_blank" rel="noopener">serious complications from contracting COVID-19</a>. <h2>Holding up a mirror</h2> Like the dinosaurs, the Neanderthals didn’t know what was coming. The difference is that the dinosaurs disappeared suddenly following a giant meteorite hit from outer space. To the Neanderthals extinction happened gradually. They eventually lost their world, a comfortable home they had successfully occupied for hundreds of thousands of years that slowly turned against them, until existence itself was unsustainable. In that sense, Neanderthals now serve a different purpose. We see our reflection in them. They didn’t know what was happening to them and they had no choice but to continue down the road that eventually led to extinction. We on the other hand are painfully aware of our situation and the impact we have on this planet. Human activity is <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-how-bad-could-the-future-be-if-we-do-nothing-159665" target="_blank" rel="noopener">changing the climate</a> and is leading straight into a sixth mass extinction. We can reflect on the mess we have landed ourselves in and we can do something about it. If we don’t want to end up like the Neanderthals, we better get our act together and collectively work for a more sustainable future. Neanderthal extinction reminds us that we should never take our existence for granted. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/neanderthals-died-out-40-000-years-ago-but-there-has-never-been-more-of-their-dna-on-earth-189021" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Shutterstock

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Centenarian blood tests give hints of the secrets to longevity

"I want answers": Simon Dorante-Day's cunning plan to prove royal connections

He's back! Charles and Camilla's secret "son" drops DNA bombshell

Should we still be using RATs to test for COVID? 4 key questions answered

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‘He was horrific!’: Nearly two thirds of family historians are distressed by what they find – should DNA kits come with warnings?

Put your Star Wars knowledge to the test

00-No: US traveller puts border security to the test with a golden gun

Madeleine McCann's parents speak out after DNA test results

Historic Swedish sailing ship slow to give up its secrets

Hilarious footage emerges of Sam Neill's James Bond screen test

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Evidence that human evolution driven by major environmental pressures discovered

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